Grammar tips from the course units

I am (ben ...im), you are (sen ...sin), he/she is (o ...dır). - I am Ali. = Ben Ali'yim. - She is from Turkey. = O Türkiye'den. Short forms: I'm, you're, he's, she's.

Turkish o has two English forms: he (erkek) and she (kadın). - He is Mehmet. = O Mehmet. - She is Ayşe. = O Ayşe.

Countries and nationalities always start with a capital letter. - Turkey (Türkiye) / Turkish (Türk) - England (İngiltere) / English (İngiliz) I am from Turkey. = Türkiye'denim.

- my = benim - your = senin - his = onun (erkek) - her = onun (kadın) *This is my mother.* = Bu benim annem. *Her name is Ayşe.* = Onun adı Ayşe.

this = bu (yakın), that = şu / o (uzak). - This is my brother. = Bu benim erkek kardeşim. - That is his car. = Şu onun arabası.

Use have got for "sahip olmak": *I have got a sister.* = Bir kız kardeşim var. With he / she use has got: *She has got blue eyes.* = Onun mavi gözleri var.

Use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u). - a banana, a sandwich - an apple, an egg Turkish has no article: *an apple* = bir elma.

Most nouns take -s in the plural: apple → apples (elmalar). Some take -es: tomato → tomatoes, sandwich → sandwiches. Uncountable: water, milk, tea, bread have no -s.

- I like tea. = Çay severim. - I don't like milk. = Süt sevmem. - She likes coffee. (he/she + -s) - I would like a coffee, please. = Bir kahve alabilir miyim, lütfen? (polite want)

Use the present simple for habits (alışkanlıklar). - I work. (Çalışırım.) - She works. (O çalışır.) With he/she/it add -s: *get up -> gets up*, *watch -> watches*, *go -> goes*.

- I don't drink coffee. (Kahve içmem.) - He doesn't work on Sunday. (Pazar günü çalışmaz.) - Do you cook? (Yemek yapar mısın?) - Does she play tennis? After *doesn't* and *does* the verb has no -s.

always (her zaman), usually (genellikle), never (asla) go before the main verb: *I usually walk.* Time: at seven o'clock (saat yedide), on Monday (pazartesi günü), in the morning (sabahleyin).

- There is a bank. (Bir banka var.) for one thing. - There are two parks. (İki park var.) for many things. - Question: Is there a café near here? (Yakında bir kafe var mı?) - Negative: There isn't a hospital. (Hastane yok.)

in (içinde), on (üstünde / caddede), next to (yanında), between (arasında), opposite (karşısında). *The bank is between the café and the hotel.* (Banka, kafe ile otelin arasında.)

Use the base verb with no subject: Turn left. (Sola dön.) Go straight. (Düz git.) Take the second street. (İkinci sokağa gir.) Negative: Don't turn right. (Sağa dönme.)

- this (bu) + one thing near you: *this shirt* - that (şu, o) + one thing far away: *that hat* - these (bunlar) + many things near you: *these shoes* - those (şunlar) + many things far away: *those socks*

- How much is this dress? (Bu elbise ne kadar?) - How much are these jeans? (Bu kot pantolon ne kadar?) Numbers: twenty, thirty, forty, fifty... *It's forty-five pounds.* (Kırk beş pound.)

- I'd like a blue T-shirt. (Mavi bir tişört istiyorum.) - Can I try it on? (Deneyebilir miyim?) - Can you help me? (Bana yardım edebilir misiniz?) *I'd like* = *I would like*, more polite than *I want*.

- There is a sofa. (Bir kanepe var.) - There are some chairs. (Birkaç sandalye var.) - There aren't any books. (Hiç kitap yok.) - Are there any windows? (Hiç pencere var mı?) Use some in positive sentences, any in negatives and questions.

For possessions (sahip olunan şeyler): - I have got a big kitchen. (Büyük bir mutfağım var.) - She has got a garden. - We haven't got a garage. (Garajımız yok.) - Have you got a balcony? (Balkonun var mı?) Short forms: *I've got, she's got*.

in (içinde), on (üstünde), under (altında), next to (yanında), between (arasında), in front of (önünde), behind (arkasında). *The lamp is next to the bed.*

After like, love and hate use the verb + -ing. - I love swimming. (Yüzmeyi çok severim.) - She likes reading. (Okumayı sever.) - I don't like cooking. (Yemek yapmayı sevmem.) - He hates running. (Koşmaktan nefret eder.) Spelling: *swim -> swimming*, *run -> running*, *dance -> dancing*.

can + verb shows ability (yapabilmek). It is the same for every person: no -s! - I can swim. (Yüzebilirim.) - She can't cook. (Yemek yapamaz.) - Can you play the guitar? (Gitar çalabilir misin?) - Yes, I can. / No, I can't.

Do you want to + verb invites someone (davet etmek). - Do you want to play tennis? (Tenis oynamak ister misin?) - Yes, sure! (Evet, tabii!) / Sorry, I can't. (Üzgünüm, yapamam.) Review: *I often play football. She sometimes dances.* (often = sık sık, sometimes = bazen)

Use it for actions happening now (şu anda olan eylemler). - I am reading. (Okuyorum.) - She is cooking. (Yemek yapıyor.) - They are playing. (Oynuyorlar.) Negative: I'm not working. Question: Are you working? (Çalışıyor musun?)

- Most verbs: *read -> reading*, *play -> playing* - Silent -e goes: *dance -> dancing*, *write -> writing* - Short verb, one vowel + one consonant: double it: *swim -> swimming*, *run -> running*, *sit -> sitting*

Present simple = habits (alışkanlıklar): *I usually walk to work.* (Genellikle işe yürürüm.) Present continuous = now (şimdi): *Today I am taking the bus.* (Bugün otobüse biniyorum.) Now words: now, right now, today, at the moment.

Use am / is / are + going to + verb for plans (planlar). - I'm going to visit my grandmother. (Büyükannemi ziyaret edeceğim.) - She's going to cook. (Yemek yapacak.) - We aren't going to work. (Çalışmayacağız.) - Are you going to come? (Gelecek misin?)

tomorrow (yarın), tonight (bu gece), this weekend (bu hafta sonu), next week (gelecek hafta), next month (gelecek ay). They usually go at the end: *I'm going to travel next week.* No *on* or *in* before this / next: ~~on next Monday~~ -> *next Monday*.

- Let's go to the cinema! (Hadi sinemaya gidelim!) - Do you want to come? (Gelmek ister misin?) - What are you going to do this weekend? (Bu hafta sonu ne yapacaksın?) - Good idea! (İyi fikir!) / Sorry, I can't. (Üzgünüm, yapamam.)

The past of *am/is* is was, the past of *are* is were. - I was at home yesterday. (Dün evdeydim.) - They were tired. (Yorgundular.) - She wasn't at work. (İşte değildi.) - Were you at school? (Okulda mıydın?)

Add -ed for all persons: *work -> worked*, *play -> played*, *live -> lived*, *study -> studied*, *stop -> stopped*. Pronunciation (telaffuz): /t/ after p, k, s, sh, ch (*walked*, *watched*); /d/ after vowels and voiced sounds (*played*, *cleaned*); /ɪd/ only after t and d (*wanted*, *visited*). The *e* in -ed is usually silent!

- yesterday (dün), yesterday morning (dün sabah) - last night / week / year (dün gece / geçen hafta / geçen yıl) - two days ago (iki gün önce): *ago* comes after the time. No *the* with *last*: *last week*, not ~~the last week~~.

Many common verbs do not take -ed. Learn them as pairs (çiftler halinde öğrenin): - go -> went (gitti), see -> saw (gördü), eat -> ate (yedi) - take -> took (aldı, bindi), buy -> bought (satın aldı) - have -> had, get -> got, fly -> flew

Use didn't (did not) + the base verb for every person. - I didn't go to Paris. (Paris'e gitmedim.) - She didn't buy a ticket. Not ~~didn't went~~: the past is already in *didn't*.

- Did you see the museum? (Müzeyi gördün mü?) - Yes, I did. / No, I didn't. - Where did you go? (Nereye gittin?) - How did you travel? (Nasıl seyahat ettin?) With *was/were* we don't use *did*: *Was it nice?*

Short adjectives add -er: *cheap -> cheaper*, *big -> bigger*, *easy -> easier*. Long adjectives use more: *expensive -> more expensive*. - Istanbul is bigger than Izmir. (İstanbul İzmir'den daha büyük.)

- This is the cheapest phone. (Bu en ucuz telefon.) - It is the most beautiful city. (En güzel şehir.) Irregular: good -> better -> the best, bad -> worse -> the worst.

Use as + adjective + as for equal things (eşitlik): *My bag is as heavy as yours.* (Benim çantam seninki kadar ağır.) Negative: *Ankara is not as big as Istanbul.* (Ankara İstanbul kadar büyük değil.)

- I have got a cold. / I've got a headache. (Nezlem var. / Başım ağrıyor.) - My back hurts. (Sırtım ağrıyor.) - I feel sick. (Midem bulanıyor / Kendimi hasta hissediyorum.) Question: What's the matter? (Neyin var?)

should + verb = -meli/-malı (tavsiye). - You should rest. (Dinlenmelisin.) - You shouldn't go to work. (İşe gitmemelisin.) - Should I take a pill? (İlaç almalı mıyım?) No -s and no to after should: *He should drink...*

Use feel or be + adjective: *I feel tired.* (Yorgun hissediyorum.) *She is worried.* (Endişeli.) Ask: How do you feel? / How are you feeling? (Nasıl hissediyorsun?)

will + verb for things you decide *now*, promises and offers. - The phone is ringing. I'll answer it. (Ben açarım.) - I'll help you. (Sana yardım ederim.) - I won't be late, I promise. (Geç kalmayacağım, söz.) *won't* = *will not*.

Use be going to + verb for plans you made *before* (planlar). - I'm going to visit my aunt on Saturday. (Cumartesi teyzemi ziyaret edeceğim.) - Are you going to buy a car? With evidence you can see: *Look at those clouds! It's going to rain.*

For opinions about the future use will, often with I think or probably: *I think it will be sunny tomorrow.* (Sanırım yarın güneşli olacak.) Weather words: sunny (güneşli), cloudy (bulutlu), windy (rüzgarlı), snow (kar).

Use was/were + verb-ing for an action in progress at a time in the past (geçmişte devam eden eylem). - At 8 o'clock I was having dinner. (Saat sekizde akşam yemeği yiyordum.) - They were watching TV. (Televizyon izliyorlardı.) - I wasn't sleeping. (Uyumuyordum.) *I/he/she/it* + was, *you/we/they* + were.

A long action (past continuous) is interrupted by a short action (past simple). - I was walking home when it started to rain. (Eve yürüyordum, yağmur başladı.) - While I was cooking, the phone rang. (Ben yemek yaparken telefon çaldı.) while + long action, when + short action.

Story words help the listener: suddenly (aniden), then (sonra), in the end (sonunda). *It was raining. I was waiting for the bus. Suddenly a car stopped...*

Countable nouns have a plural: *an egg, two eggs*. Uncountable nouns have no plural: *rice, milk, sugar, bread*. - I need three tomatoes. (Üç domatese ihtiyacım var.) - We need some flour. (Biraz una ihtiyacımız var.) Never say *a rice* or *breads*.

How many + plural countable: *How many eggs do we need?* (Kaç yumurta lazım?) How much + uncountable: *How much sugar do you want?* (Ne kadar şeker istersin?) a lot of works with both: *a lot of eggs, a lot of milk* (bir sürü, çok).

- a few + countable: *a few onions* (birkaç soğan) - a little + uncountable: *a little salt* (biraz tuz) - too much / too many = more than you need (gereğinden fazla): *There is too much salt in the soup.*

On the phone English uses this is and speak to, not *I am*. - Hello, this is Deniz. (Merhaba, ben Deniz.) - Can I speak to Mr Brown, please? (Bay Brown ile görüşebilir miyim?) - Hold on, please. (Lütfen bekleyin.) - He isn't here. Can I take a message? (Not alabilir miyim?)

Could you + verb is more polite than *can you*. - Could you call me back? (Beni geri arayabilir misiniz?) - Could you say that again, please? (Tekrar söyler misiniz?) For what you want, use I'd like to (I would like to): *I'd like to book a table.* (Bir masa ayırtmak istiyorum.)

Start: Dear Ms Kaya, / Hi Ali, Middle: *I'm writing about the meeting.* (Toplantı hakkında yazıyorum.) *Please find the file attached.* (Dosya ektedir.) End: Best wishes, / Thanks, + your name.

They show where you go (hareket edatları). - across the road (yolun karşısına) - along the river (nehir boyunca) - past the bank (bankanın önünden geçerek) - through the park (parkın içinden) - over the bridge (köprünün üstünden), under the bridge (köprünün altından) - into the shop (dükkâna), out of the station (istasyondan dışarı)

For buses, trams and the metro: - Get on the bus at Taksim. (Otobüse Taksim'de bin.) - Get off at the third stop. (Üçüncü durakta in.) - Change at Kadıköy. (Kadıköy'de aktarma yap.) For a car or a taxi: get in / get out of.

It takes + time says how much time a trip needs (sürmek). - How long does it take to get to the airport? (Havaalanına gitmek ne kadar sürer?) - It takes about forty minutes by metro. (Metroyla yaklaşık kırk dakika sürer.) - It took two hours yesterday. (Dün iki saat sürdü.)

- Would you like to come to my party? (Partime gelmek ister misin?) - Do you want to see a film? (Film izlemek ister misin?) - How about going to the beach? (Sahile gitmeye ne dersin?) - Why don't we have a picnic? (Neden piknik yapmıyoruz?) After how about use -ing. After the others use the base verb.

Yes: I'd love to! (Çok isterim!) Sounds great! (Harika olur!) No, politely: I'm sorry, I can't. (Üzgünüm, gelemem.) + a reason: *I'm working on Saturday.* Then: Maybe next time. (Belki bir dahaki sefere.)

For plans with a fixed time and place, use am/is/are + -ing with a future time. - I'm meeting Ece on Friday. (Cuma günü Ece ile buluşuyorum.) - We're having a party on Saturday. (Cumartesi parti veriyoruz.) - What are you doing tonight? (Bu akşam ne yapıyorsun?)

Use have/has + past participle for experiences at any time in your life, without saying *when*. - Have you ever been to Japan? (Hiç Japonya'ya gittin mi?) - I've never tried sushi. (Hiç suşi denemedim.) - She has climbed a mountain twice. (O iki kez dağa tırmandı.) *ever* goes in questions, *never* makes the sentence negative.

been to = went and came back (gidip döndü). gone to = went and is still there (gitti, hâlâ orada). - Ali has been to Paris. He loved it. (Ali Paris'e gitti ve döndü.) - Ali has gone to Paris. He's not here now. (Ali Paris'e gitti, şu an burada değil.)

Present perfect: the time is not important or not finished. Past simple: a finished time is given (*yesterday, in 2019, last summer, two years ago*). - I've visited Rome. (Roma'yı ziyaret ettim.) - I visited Rome in 2019. (2019'da Roma'yı ziyaret ettim.) Never say *I have visited Rome last year*.

Use the present perfect for situations that started in the past and continue now. - for + a period: *for three years, for a long time* (üç yıldır) - since + a starting point: *since 2020, since Monday* (2020'den beri) - I've worked here for five years. (Beş yıldır burada çalışıyorum.) - She's been a nurse since 2018. (2018'den beri hemşire.) Turkish uses the present tense here, English does not: never *I work here for five years*.

- just = a moment ago (az önce): *I've just sent the email.* - already = sooner than expected (zaten, çoktan): *She's already finished the report.* - yet = in questions and negatives, at the end (henüz, daha): *Have you called him yet? I haven't called him yet.*

apply for a job (işe başvurmak), hire (işe almak), salary (maaş), colleague (iş arkadaşı), manager (yönetici), experience (deneyim), skills (beceriler). *I've applied for three jobs this month.* (Bu ay üç işe başvurdum.)

If + present, present for things that are always true (genel gerçekler). - If you heat ice, it melts. (Buzu ısıtırsan erir.) - If I drink coffee at night, I can't sleep. (Gece kahve içersem uyuyamam.)

If + present, will + verb for a real possibility in the future (gerçek olasılık). - If it rains tomorrow, we'll stay at home. (Yarın yağmur yağarsa evde kalacağız.) - If you don't hurry, you'll miss the bus. (Acele etmezsen otobüsü kaçıracaksın.) No *will* after *if*: never *If it will rain*.

unless = if not (-mezse, -madıkça): *I won't go unless you come.* (Sen gelmezsen gitmem.) when = it will surely happen (-ince): *When I get home, I'll call you.* (Eve varınca seni ararım.) if = maybe it will happen (-se, -sa): *If I see Ayşe, I'll tell her.* (Ayşe'yi görürsem ona söylerim.)

If + past simple, would + verb for imaginary or unlikely situations (hayali durumlar). - If I had a lot of money, I'd travel the world. (Çok param olsa dünyayı gezerdim.) - If she lived near the sea, she would swim every day. (Denize yakın yaşasa her gün yüzerdi.) The verb looks past, but the meaning is now or future.

Use I wish + past simple for things you want to be different now (keşke). - I wish I had more free time. (Keşke daha çok boş vaktim olsa.) - I wish I could speak Japanese. (Keşke Japonca konuşabilsem.) - I wish it wasn't so cold. (Keşke bu kadar soğuk olmasa.)

For advice say If I were you, I'd... (Senin yerinde olsam...). - If I were you, I'd talk to her. (Senin yerinde olsam onunla konuşurdum.) - If I were you, I wouldn't buy that car. After *if*, were is used for all persons: *If he were here...*

used to + verb = a past habit or state that is not true now (eskiden ...erdim). - I used to play football every day. (Eskiden her gün futbol oynardım.) - We didn't use to have a car. (Eskiden arabamız yoktu.) - Did you use to live in Izmir? After *did/didn't*, write use to without *d*.

would + verb can also describe repeated past actions, often in stories. - Every summer, my grandmother would make jam. (Her yaz büyükannem reçel yapardı.) But *would* is not used for past states: *I used to have long hair*, never *I would have long hair*.

be used to + -ing / noun = something is normal for you (alışkın olmak). get used to + -ing / noun = it is becoming normal (alışmak). - I'm used to getting up early. (Erken kalkmaya alışkınım.) - I'm getting used to the cold weather. (Soğuk havaya alışıyorum.) Compare: *I used to get up early* = I did it before, not now.

am / is / are + past participle when the action matters more than the person. - Coffee is grown in Brazil. (Kahve Brezilya'da yetiştirilir.) - These cars are made in Turkey. (Bu arabalar Türkiye'de üretilir.) Turkish uses *-il / -in*: yapılır, yetiştirilir.

was / were + past participle for finished actions. - The bridge was built in 1973. (Köprü 1973'te inşa edildi.) - The letters were sent yesterday. (Mektuplar dün gönderildi.) Negative: *wasn't / weren't*: The parcel wasn't delivered. (Paket teslim edilmedi.)

Add by only when the person is important or new information. - *Romeo and Juliet* was written by Shakespeare. (Shakespeare tarafından yazıldı.) - The telephone was invented by Bell. (Bell tarafından icat edildi.) *by* = *tarafından*. We usually leave it out when the doer is unknown or obvious.

A relative clause tells us which person or thing we mean. - She's the woman who lives next door. (Yan dairede oturan kadın.) - This is the bag which I bought in Izmir. (İzmir'de aldığım çanta.) Turkish puts this *before* the noun (-an / -en, -dığı); English puts it *after*.

In defining clauses, that can replace *who* or *which*. - The man that called you is my boss. (Seni arayan adam patronum.) - The phone that I want is too expensive. (İstediğim telefon çok pahalı.) Don't repeat the object: ~~the phone that I want it~~.

Use where after a place noun. - This is the café where we first met. (İlk tanıştığımız kafe.) - I visited the town where my mother was born. (Annemin doğduğu kasaba.) *where* = a place + something happens there.

After enjoy, love, like, hate, finish, avoid, mind, keep use -ing. - I enjoy reading before bed. (Yatmadan önce okumaktan keyif alırım.) - She keeps practising the guitar. (Gitar çalışmaya devam ediyor.) Also after prepositions: I'm good at drawing. (Resim çizmekte iyiyim.)

After decide, want, hope, plan, learn, need, promise, agree use to + verb. - I decided to learn Spanish. (İspanyolca öğrenmeye karar verdim.) - We hope to travel next year. (Seneye seyahat etmeyi umuyoruz.) Never: ~~I decided learning~~.

The meaning changes. - I stopped eating sugar. (Şeker yemeyi bıraktım.) / I stopped to buy water. (Su almak için durdum.) - Remember to call Mum. (Annemi aramayı unutma.) / I remember meeting him. (Onunla tanıştığımı hatırlıyorum.) - Try to sleep early. (Erken uyumaya çalış.) / Try drinking tea. (Çay içmeyi bir dene.)

Both mean something is necessary (zorunlu). - You must wear a helmet. (Kask takmalısın.) is often a rule or the speaker's opinion. - I have to work on Saturday. (Cumartesi çalışmak zorundayım.) is often an outside duty. Past: only had to: I had to wait an hour. (Bir saat beklemek zorunda kaldım.)

They are very different! - You mustn't use your phone in the exam. (Sınavda telefon kullanmamalısın, yasak.) - You don't have to wear a uniform. (Üniforma giymek zorunda değilsin, gerek yok.) *mustn't* = forbidden. *don't have to* = not necessary.

should gives advice (tavsiye): You should ask your manager. (Müdürüne sormalısın.) be allowed to means permission (izin): - We are allowed to leave early on Fridays. (Cuma günleri erken çıkmamıza izin var.) - Students aren't allowed to eat in class. (Öğrencilerin sınıfta yemesine izin yok.)

Start with an opinion phrase: - I think phones are useful. (Bence telefonlar faydalı.) - In my opinion, kids spend too much time online. (Bence çocuklar internette çok vakit geçiriyor.) - I don't think it's a good idea. (Bunun iyi bir fikir olduğunu sanmıyorum.) Say *I don't think it's good*, not ~~I think it isn't good~~.

because + a full sentence gives the reason. - I use this app because it's free. (Bu uygulamayı kullanıyorum çünkü ücretsiz.) because of + a noun: I was late because of the traffic. (Trafik yüzünden geç kaldım.)

Both show contrast (zıtlık). - Although it's expensive, I love my laptop. (Pahalı olmasına rağmen dizüstümü seviyorum.) - Social media is fun. However, it wastes time. (Sosyal medya eğlenceli. Ancak zaman kaybettiriyor.) *although* joins two parts of one sentence; *however* starts a new sentence, usually with a comma.

When the reporting verb is in the past, the tense usually moves one step back (bir zaman geriye kayar). - "I am tired." → She said she was tired. (Yorgun olduğunu söyledi.) - "I have finished." → He said he had finished. - "I will call." → She said she would call. Time words change too: *today* → *that day*, *tomorrow* → *the next day*, *here* → *there*.

Reported questions use statement word order and no question mark. - "Where do you live?" → He asked me where I lived. (Nerede yaşadığımı sordu.) - Yes/no questions take if or whether: She asked if I was ready. Commands and requests use tell / ask + object + to + verb: - "Sit down." → The teacher told us to sit down. (Bize oturmamızı söyledi.) - "Don't be late." → She told me not to be late.

tell needs a person after it; say does not (tell + kişi). - She told me that she was busy. - She said that she was busy. - She said to me that... (possible, but less common) Fixed phrases: tell the truth (doğruyu söylemek), tell a lie (yalan söylemek), tell a story, say sorry.

For an imagined past that did not happen (gerçekleşmemiş geçmiş): If + past perfect, would have + past participle - If I had studied, I would have passed. (Çalışsaydım geçerdim.) - If she hadn't missed the bus, she wouldn't have been late. Short forms: *I'd have*, *wouldn't have*. Careful: in *If I'd known*, 'd = had; in *I'd have gone*, 'd = would.

Mix times when a past action has a present result (geçmişteki bir şeyin bugünkü sonucu): - If I had taken the job, I would be rich now. (O işi alsaydım şimdi zengin olurdum.) Or a present fact with a past result: - If I were braver, I would have spoken to her. (Daha cesur olsaydım onunla konuşurdum.)

wish + past perfect for past regrets (pişmanlık): - I wish I had listened to you. (Keşke seni dinleseydim.) should have / shouldn't have + past participle for criticism of the past: - You should have told me. (Bana söylemeliydin.) - I shouldn't have eaten so much. (Bu kadar çok yememeliydim.)

will be + -ing for an action in progress at a future moment (gelecekte belli bir anda sürmekte olan eylem). - This time tomorrow I will be flying to Paris. (Yarın bu saatte Paris'e uçuyor olacağım.) - Don't call at eight; we 'll be having dinner. It also sounds polite for plans: *Will you be using the car tonight?*

will have + past participle for something finished *before* a future time (gelecekte bir zamandan önce tamamlanmış olacak). - By 2030, we will have built the new bridge. (2030'a kadar yeni köprüyü bitirmiş olacağız.) - By the time you arrive, I will have cooked dinner. Key words: by (-e kadar), by the time (-diği zamana kadar).

be about to + verb = something will happen very soon (üzere olmak). - Hurry, the film is about to start. (Film başlamak üzere.) For predictions about society, vary your certainty: will definitely (kesinlikle), is likely to (muhtemelen), may well (pekâlâ), is unlikely to (pek olası değil). - Robots are likely to replace many jobs.

Use modals to say how sure you are (ne kadar emin olduğun): - must = I'm almost sure it's true. *She must be tired; she worked all night.* (Yorgun olmalı.) - might / may / could = possibly. *He might be at home.* (Evde olabilir.) - can't = I'm almost sure it's not true. *That can't be Ali; he's in Ankara.* (O Ali olamaz.) Note: the opposite of *must* here is can't, not *mustn't*.

modal + have + past participle: - The ground is wet. It must have rained. (Yağmur yağmış olmalı.) - She might have missed the bus. (Otobüsü kaçırmış olabilir.) - He can't have seen me; he didn't say hello. (Beni görmüş olamaz.) Also couldn't have = can't have.

Good deductions come from evidence (kanıt) and clues (ipuçları). Useful phrases: - judging by the footprints... (ayak izlerine bakılırsa) - It looks as if someone broke in. (Biri içeri girmiş gibi görünüyor.) - There's no way he did it. (Onun yapmış olmasına imkân yok.)

Formal emails avoid contractions and use polite, indirect phrases (resmi ve dolaylı ifadeler). - Opening: Dear Ms Yılmaz, / I am writing to enquire about... (... hakkında bilgi almak için yazıyorum.) - Requests: I would be grateful if you could send... (... gönderebilirseniz minnettar olurum.) - Attachments: Please find attached the report. (Rapor ektedir.) - Closing: I look forward to hearing from you. Kind regards,

- furthermore / moreover = in addition (ayrıca, üstelik) - nevertheless / however = but, despite this (yine de, bununla birlikte) - whereas = contrast between two facts (oysa, -iken) - therefore = so, as a result (bu nedenle) *The price is high. Nevertheless, the quality is excellent.* *Our office is in Istanbul, whereas theirs is in Izmir.*

Negotiate politely with softeners (yumuşatıcılar): - Would you be willing to lower the price? (Fiyatı düşürmeye razı olur musunuz?) - We could offer a 5% discount if you order 500 units. - I'm afraid we can't accept that. (Maalesef bunu kabul edemeyiz.) - Let's meet halfway. (Ortada buluşalım.) - It's a deal. (Anlaştık.)

modal + be + past participle, have/has been + past participle. - The report must be finished today. (Rapor bugün bitirilmeli.) - The bridge has been repaired. (Köprü onarıldı.) - The tickets should have been booked earlier. (Biletler daha önce ayrılmalıydı.) Use *by* only when the doer matters.

When someone else does a job for you: have/get + object + past participle. - I had my car repaired. (Arabamı tamir ettirdim.) - She is getting her hair cut. (Saçını kestiriyor.) Turkish uses the causative *-tir/-dir*; English uses this structure. *get* is more informal.

Report general opinions without naming the source. - It is said that the castle is haunted. (Kalenin perili olduğu söylenir.) - The castle is said to be haunted. (Same meaning.) - He is believed to have left the country. (Ülkeyi terk ettiğine inanılıyor.) Also: *it is thought / reported / expected that*.

Positive sentence, negative tag; negative sentence, positive tag. Use the same auxiliary. - It's cold, isn't it? (Soğuk, değil mi?) - You don't eat meat, do you? (Et yemiyorsun, değil mi?) - She has finished, hasn't she? (Bitirdi, değil mi?) Special: *I'm late, aren't I?* / *Let's go, shall we?*

After *Could you tell me / Do you know / I wonder*, use statement word order (no *do/does/did*). - Where is the station? → Could you tell me where the station is? (İstasyonun nerede olduğunu söyler misiniz?) - Did he call? → Do you know if he called? (Arayıp aramadığını biliyor musunuz?)

Make requests and opinions less direct. - I was wondering if you could help me. (Bana yardım edip edemeyeceğinizi merak ediyordum.) - Would you mind closing the door? (Kapıyı kapatır mısınız?) - It seems a bit expensive. (Biraz pahalı gibi görünüyor.) Words like *a bit, slightly, perhaps* also soften.

With many phrasal verbs the object can go in the middle or at the end. - She brought up the problem. / She brought the problem up. (Sorunu gündeme getirdi.) - Put off the meeting. / Put the meeting off. (Toplantıyı ertele.) With a pronoun it must go in the middle: *put it off*, not *put off it*.

Some never split: the object always comes after the whole verb. - We will look into the complaint. (Şikayeti inceleyeceğiz.) - I ran into Ayşe at lunch. (Öğle yemeğinde Ayşe'ye rastladım.) - Who will deal with it? (Bununla kim ilgilenecek?)

These have two particles and never split. - She came up with a great idea. (Harika bir fikir buldu.) - I can't keep up with all these emails. (Bu e-postalara yetişemiyorum.) - We ran out of paper. (Kağıdımız bitti.)

An idiom's meaning is not the sum of its words, and you can't change them. - The exam was a piece of cake. (Sınav çocuk oyuncağıydı.) - not *a piece of the cake*, not *a slice of cake* Learn idioms as whole chunks, like single words.

Some idioms match Turkish, many don't. - break the ice = buzları kırmak (same image) - on the fence = kararsız kalmak (iki arada bir derede) - once in a blue moon = kırk yılda bir - it costs an arm and a leg = dudak uçuklatan fiyat Don't translate idioms word for word.

Casual speech uses small words to sound relaxed. - Anyway, how was your weekend? (Neyse...) - It was kind of boring. (Biraz / bir nevi) - I mean, it wasn't bad. (Yani...) Use them in conversation, not in formal writing.

Introduce advantages and disadvantages clearly. - One advantage of public transport is that it reduces traffic. (Toplu taşımanın bir avantajı trafiği azaltmasıdır.) - On the other hand, it can be crowded. (Öte yandan kalabalık olabilir.) - The main drawback is the cost. (Ana dezavantajı maliyettir.)

Use linkers to add, contrast and conclude. - Add: Moreover / In addition, ... (Ayrıca) - Contrast: However, ... / Although it is cheap, ... (Ancak / -e rağmen) - Conclude: All in all / To sum up, ... (Sonuç olarak) *However* starts a new sentence; *although* joins two clauses.

Stay polite, even when you disagree. - I see your point, but ... (Ne demek istediğini anlıyorum ama...) - I couldn't agree more. (Kesinlikle katılıyorum.) - That's not entirely true. (Bu tamamen doğru değil.) Reuse softeners from earlier: *I'm afraid, perhaps, slightly*.

After a negative or restrictive adverb at the start of a sentence, the auxiliary comes before the subject, like a question (soru düzeni). - Never have I seen such a view. (Hayatımda böyle bir manzara görmedim.) - Rarely do we get a chance like this. (Böyle bir fırsatı nadiren yakalarız.) - Not until she called did I realise. (O arayana kadar fark etmedim.) - Under no circumstances should you open this door. (Hiçbir koşulda bu kapıyı açmamalısın.) No auxiliary in the normal sentence? Add do / does / did.

- Not only did he apologise, but he also paid for the damage. (Sadece özür dilemekle kalmadı, zararı da ödedi.) - Hardly had we sat down when the phone rang. (Daha oturmuştuk ki telefon çaldı.) - No sooner had I left than it started to rain. (Çıkar çıkmaz yağmur başladı.) Note the pairs: *hardly / scarcely ... when*, *no sooner ... than*. Use the past perfect.

Split a sentence to focus on one part (vurgulama). - What I need is a long holiday. (İhtiyacım olan şey uzun bir tatil.) - What she did was call the police. (Yaptığı şey polisi aramaktı.) - It was Ahmet that / who broke the window. (Camı kıran Ahmet'ti.) - It wasn't until midnight that they arrived. (Ancak gece yarısı geldiler.) - All I want is some peace and quiet. (Tek istediğim biraz huzur.)

Strong claims can sound arrogant or unscientific. Hedging (temkinli ifade) shows you are careful. - *Social media causes loneliness.* (too strong) - *Social media may contribute to loneliness.* (careful) Useful verbs: appear to, seem to, tend to, suggest, indicate. - *Young people tend to spend more online.* (Gençler internette daha fazla zaman geçirme eğilimindedir.)

- It would appear that the plan has failed. (Görünüşe göre plan başarısız oldu.) - It is widely believed that ... (Yaygın olarak inanılır ki ...) - There is some evidence to suggest that ... (... olduğunu gösteren bazı kanıtlar var.) - It could be argued that ... (... olduğu öne sürülebilir.) These avoid *I think* and keep an academic register (akademik üslup).

- arguably (tartışmaya açık olsa da) *the best film of the year* - to some extent / to a certain degree (bir dereceye kadar) - presumably (muhtemelen, tahminen) - somewhat (biraz, bir ölçüde) - in most cases / the majority of (çoğu durumda / çoğunluğu) *The results are somewhat surprising.* *I agree to some extent.*

In formal English you can drop if and invert (if olmadan, devrik yapı). - Should you need help, call me. = If you need help... (Yardıma ihtiyacınız olursa beni arayın.) - Were I you, I would accept. = If I were you... (Yerinde olsam kabul ederdim.) - Had we known, we would have come. = If we had known... (Bilseydik gelirdik.) Negative: Had I not seen it... (Görmeseydim...)

But for / Were it not for / If it hadn't been for + noun = without (... olmasaydı). - But for your help, I would have failed. (Yardımın olmasaydı başarısız olurdum.) - Were it not for the rain, we could go out. (Yağmur olmasa dışarı çıkabilirdik.) - Had it not been for the doctor, he would have died. (Doktor olmasaydı ölürdü.)

- provided (that) / providing / as long as = only if (... şartıyla) *You can borrow it provided that you return it.* - otherwise = if not (aksi takdirde): *Hurry, otherwise we'll miss the train.* - supposing / suppose = imagine if (diyelim ki) - Implied conditionals have no if: *I would have called, but my phone died.* *With a bit more time, we could finish.* *Without your support...*

Some words simply go together (eşdizimler). Turkish logic does not always help. - heavily dependent on (büyük ölçüde bağımlı), not *strongly dependent* - bitterly disappointed (derin hayal kırıklığına uğramış) - highly unlikely (son derece düşük ihtimalli) - deeply concerned (derinden endişeli) - fully aware (tamamen farkında) - draw a conclusion (sonuç çıkarmak), not *make a conclusion*

- pay attention (dikkat etmek), pose a threat (tehdit oluşturmak) - raise awareness (farkındalık yaratmak), meet a deadline (teslim tarihine yetişmek) - reach an agreement (anlaşmaya varmak), take into account (hesaba katmak) - bear in mind (aklında tutmak) *We failed to meet the deadline.* *Please bear in mind that...*

Prefixes (önekler) change meaning: - mis- wrongly: misunderstand, over- too much: overestimate, under- too little: underestimate - ir- / il- / im- / in- not: irrelevant, illegal, impractical, inaccurate Suffixes (sonekler) change word class: - -ness / -ity / -ment nouns: awareness, reliability, assessment - -ise / -en verbs: prioritise, broaden - -able / -ive / -ous adjectives: reliable, effective, ambiguous

- Rhetorical questions (cevap beklemeyen sorular): *Can we really afford to wait?* - The rule of three (üçlü kural): *It is cheaper, faster and safer.* - Strong signposting: *First and foremost... / Above all... / Crucially...* (Her şeyden önce / En önemlisi) - Inclusive language: *We all know... / Surely we can agree...* (Hepimiz biliyoruz ki...)

Admit a point before you challenge it (kabul edip karşı çıkmak). - Admittedly, the plan is expensive. However, ... (Kabul etmek gerekir ki...) - Granted, it will take time, but ... (Doğru, zaman alacak ama...) - That said, ... / Having said that, ... (Bununla birlikte) - While it is true that ..., ... (... doğru olsa da) - Even so, ... (Öyle bile olsa)

- Opponents argue that ... (Karşı çıkanlar ... olduğunu savunuyor) - This argument fails to take into account ... (Bu argüman ... hesaba katmıyor) - On the contrary, ... (Aksine) - I would go so far as to say ... (... diyecek kadar ileri giderim) - The evidence clearly shows ... (Kanıtlar açıkça gösteriyor)

A participle clause replaces a full clause when the subject is the same (özne aynıysa yan cümle kısalır). - Having finished the report, she went home. = After she had finished... (Raporu bitirdikten sonra eve gitti.) - Having been told the news, he called his mother. (Haber kendisine söylendikten sonra annesini aradı.) - Being watched by everyone, I felt nervous. (Herkes tarafından izlendiğim için gergindim.) *Having + V3* shows the action happened first (önce olan eylem).

Drop who/which/that + be to make a relative clause shorter (ilgi cümlesini kısaltma). - The man (who is) standing by the door is my uncle. (Kapının yanında duran adam) - The houses (which were) built in 1900 are protected. (1900'de inşa edilen evler) - Anyone wishing to leave early must sign out. (Erken çıkmak isteyen herkes) -ing = active (etken), -ed / V3 = passive (edilgen).

- Reason (sebep): Not knowing what to say, I stayed silent. (Ne diyeceğimi bilmediğim için sustum.) - Reason, passive: Exhausted by the journey, we went straight to bed. (Yolculuktan bitkin düştüğümüz için) - Time (zaman): Walking home, I saw an old friend. (Eve yürürken) - With a conjunction: After / Before / While + -ing: *Before leaving, check the windows.* Watch the subject: *Walking home, the rain started* is wrong, because the rain was not walking (sarkık ortaç hatası).

After verbs and adjectives of demand or importance, use the base form of the verb for every person (tüm kişilerde yalın fiil). - It is essential that he be on time. (Onun zamanında orada olması şart.) - I suggest that she go to a doctor. (Doktora gitmesini öneririm.) - They insisted that the manager apologise. (Müdürün özür dilemesinde ısrar ettiler.) No -s, no was/is: *that he be*, *that she go*. Negative: *that he not be late*.

- if need be = if necessary (gerekirse): *I will work late, if need be.* - be that as it may = even so (her ne kadar öyle olsa da) - suffice it to say = I will only say (şu kadarını söyleyeyim) - so be it = then accept it (öyle olsun) - were it not for = if it were not for (... olmasaydı): *Were it not for your help, we would have failed.*

Formal register (resmi üslup) is indirect and impersonal: - I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with the service. (Hizmetten duyduğum memnuniyetsizliği bildirmek için yazıyorum.) - I would appreciate it if you could refund the cost. (... iade ederseniz memnun olurum.) - I must insist that the matter be resolved promptly. (Konunun hızla çözülmesinde ısrar etmeliyim.) - Should you require further information, please contact me. (Daha fazla bilgiye ihtiyaç duyarsanız)

Start positive, be specific, then suggest (önce olumlu, sonra somut, sonra öneri). - I really appreciate your effort on this, but the figures need checking. (Emeğini takdir ediyorum ama rakamların kontrol edilmesi gerekiyor.) - One thing that might help is sending updates earlier. (Faydalı olabilecek bir şey...) - I've noticed that the reports have been late recently. (... dikkatimi çekti.) Criticise the work, not the person (kişiyi değil, işi eleştir).

Soften with modal verbs, hedges and questions (yumuşatıcılar): - I see where you're coming from, but ... (Ne demek istediğini anlıyorum ama...) - I'm not sure I entirely agree. (Tamamen katıldığımdan emin değilim.) - Wouldn't it be better to wait? (Beklemek daha iyi olmaz mı?) - With respect, I think we may be overlooking the cost. - slightly, a bit, perhaps, might make a statement less direct.

- Is there any flexibility on the deadline? (Son tarih konusunda esneklik var mı?) - Realistically, we're looking at the end of the month. (Gerçekçi olmak gerekirse...) - If we push it back by a week, we can guarantee quality. (Bir hafta ertelersek...) - That's a tight deadline. (Sıkışık bir son tarih.) - Could we agree on a compromise? Let's touch base on Friday. (Cuma günü haberleşelim.)

Academic English turns verbs and adjectives into nouns (fiilleri isimleştirme). - *The government implemented the policy.* becomes *The implementation of the policy...* (politikanın uygulanması) - *Emissions were reduced.* becomes *A reduction in emissions...* (emisyonlarda azalma) - *Prices increased sharply.* becomes *A sharp increase in prices...* Useful suffixes: -tion, -ment, -ance, -ity, -ness (implement, implementation; develop, development; significant, significance).

Nominalised nouns take fixed prepositions (sabit edatlar): - a rise / fall / reduction / increase in something (bir şeyde artış/azalma) - the effect / impact / influence on something (bir şey üzerindeki etki) - the cause of, the solution to, the relationship between A and B - *There has been a significant reduction in air pollution.*

Scientists avoid claiming too much (aşırı iddiadan kaçınma, hedging): - The results suggest that ... (Sonuçlar ... olduğunu gösteriyor.) - The data indicate a link between sleep and memory. (... arasında bir bağlantıya işaret ediyor.) - It appears that / It is likely that ... (Görünüşe göre / Muhtemelen) - Further research is needed. (Daha fazla araştırma gerekiyor.) - correlation is not causation: a link does not prove a cause (ilişki nedensellik değildir).

Discourse markers organise what you say and show your attitude (söylemi düzenleyen ifadeler). - mind you = but remember (gerçi, ama şunu da söyleyeyim): *It's expensive. Mind you, it's good quality.* - as it happens = by chance, actually (tesadüfen, aslında): *As it happens, I know her.* - come to think of it = now that I think about it (şimdi düşünüyorum da) - anyway = back to the main point (neyse) - having said that = despite what I just said (bunu söyledikten sonra, yine de)

Natural speakers buy time with fillers (dolgu ifadeler): - well, you know, I mean, sort of, kind of - Let me think. / How can I put it? (Nasıl desem?) - What I'm trying to say is ... (Demeye çalıştığım şu ki...) Use them lightly: too many sound unsure (fazlası kararsız gösterir).

- Taking the turn: Can I just jump in here? (Burada araya girebilir miyim?) / Sorry to interrupt, but ... - Holding the turn: Hang on, let me finish. (Dur, bitireyim.) - Giving the turn: What do you reckon? (Sen ne dersin?) / Over to you. - Returning to a point: Going back to what you said about ... (... hakkında söylediğine dönersek) - Showing you listen: Really? No way! That makes sense.