B2 English course: Upper Intermediate

When the reporting verb is in the past, the tense usually moves one step back (bir zaman geriye kayar). - "I am tired." → She said she was tired. (Yorgun olduğunu söyledi.) - "I have finished." → He said he had finished. - "I will call." → She said she would call. Time words change too: *today* → *that day*, *tomorrow* → *the next day*, *here* → *there*.

Reported questions use statement word order and no question mark. - "Where do you live?" → He asked me where I lived. (Nerede yaşadığımı sordu.) - Yes/no questions take if or whether: She asked if I was ready. Commands and requests use tell / ask + object + to + verb: - "Sit down." → The teacher told us to sit down. (Bize oturmamızı söyledi.) - "Don't be late." → She told me not to be late.

tell needs a person after it; say does not (tell + kişi). - She told me that she was busy. - She said that she was busy. - She said to me that... (possible, but less common) Fixed phrases: tell the truth (doğruyu söylemek), tell a lie (yalan söylemek), tell a story, say sorry.

For an imagined past that did not happen (gerçekleşmemiş geçmiş): If + past perfect, would have + past participle - If I had studied, I would have passed. (Çalışsaydım geçerdim.) - If she hadn't missed the bus, she wouldn't have been late. Short forms: *I'd have*, *wouldn't have*. Careful: in *If I'd known*, 'd = had; in *I'd have gone*, 'd = would.

Mix times when a past action has a present result (geçmişteki bir şeyin bugünkü sonucu): - If I had taken the job, I would be rich now. (O işi alsaydım şimdi zengin olurdum.) Or a present fact with a past result: - If I were braver, I would have spoken to her. (Daha cesur olsaydım onunla konuşurdum.)

wish + past perfect for past regrets (pişmanlık): - I wish I had listened to you. (Keşke seni dinleseydim.) should have / shouldn't have + past participle for criticism of the past: - You should have told me. (Bana söylemeliydin.) - I shouldn't have eaten so much. (Bu kadar çok yememeliydim.)

will be + -ing for an action in progress at a future moment (gelecekte belli bir anda sürmekte olan eylem). - This time tomorrow I will be flying to Paris. (Yarın bu saatte Paris'e uçuyor olacağım.) - Don't call at eight; we 'll be having dinner. It also sounds polite for plans: *Will you be using the car tonight?*

will have + past participle for something finished *before* a future time (gelecekte bir zamandan önce tamamlanmış olacak). - By 2030, we will have built the new bridge. (2030'a kadar yeni köprüyü bitirmiş olacağız.) - By the time you arrive, I will have cooked dinner. Key words: by (-e kadar), by the time (-diği zamana kadar).

be about to + verb = something will happen very soon (üzere olmak). - Hurry, the film is about to start. (Film başlamak üzere.) For predictions about society, vary your certainty: will definitely (kesinlikle), is likely to (muhtemelen), may well (pekâlâ), is unlikely to (pek olası değil). - Robots are likely to replace many jobs.

Use modals to say how sure you are (ne kadar emin olduğun): - must = I'm almost sure it's true. *She must be tired; she worked all night.* (Yorgun olmalı.) - might / may / could = possibly. *He might be at home.* (Evde olabilir.) - can't = I'm almost sure it's not true. *That can't be Ali; he's in Ankara.* (O Ali olamaz.) Note: the opposite of *must* here is can't, not *mustn't*.

modal + have + past participle: - The ground is wet. It must have rained. (Yağmur yağmış olmalı.) - She might have missed the bus. (Otobüsü kaçırmış olabilir.) - He can't have seen me; he didn't say hello. (Beni görmüş olamaz.) Also couldn't have = can't have.

Good deductions come from evidence (kanıt) and clues (ipuçları). Useful phrases: - judging by the footprints... (ayak izlerine bakılırsa) - It looks as if someone broke in. (Biri içeri girmiş gibi görünüyor.) - There's no way he did it. (Onun yapmış olmasına imkân yok.)

Formal emails avoid contractions and use polite, indirect phrases (resmi ve dolaylı ifadeler). - Opening: Dear Ms Yılmaz, / I am writing to enquire about... (... hakkında bilgi almak için yazıyorum.) - Requests: I would be grateful if you could send... (... gönderebilirseniz minnettar olurum.) - Attachments: Please find attached the report. (Rapor ektedir.) - Closing: I look forward to hearing from you. Kind regards,

- furthermore / moreover = in addition (ayrıca, üstelik) - nevertheless / however = but, despite this (yine de, bununla birlikte) - whereas = contrast between two facts (oysa, -iken) - therefore = so, as a result (bu nedenle) *The price is high. Nevertheless, the quality is excellent.* *Our office is in Istanbul, whereas theirs is in Izmir.*

Negotiate politely with softeners (yumuşatıcılar): - Would you be willing to lower the price? (Fiyatı düşürmeye razı olur musunuz?) - We could offer a 5% discount if you order 500 units. - I'm afraid we can't accept that. (Maalesef bunu kabul edemeyiz.) - Let's meet halfway. (Ortada buluşalım.) - It's a deal. (Anlaştık.)

modal + be + past participle, have/has been + past participle. - The report must be finished today. (Rapor bugün bitirilmeli.) - The bridge has been repaired. (Köprü onarıldı.) - The tickets should have been booked earlier. (Biletler daha önce ayrılmalıydı.) Use *by* only when the doer matters.

When someone else does a job for you: have/get + object + past participle. - I had my car repaired. (Arabamı tamir ettirdim.) - She is getting her hair cut. (Saçını kestiriyor.) Turkish uses the causative *-tir/-dir*; English uses this structure. *get* is more informal.

Report general opinions without naming the source. - It is said that the castle is haunted. (Kalenin perili olduğu söylenir.) - The castle is said to be haunted. (Same meaning.) - He is believed to have left the country. (Ülkeyi terk ettiğine inanılıyor.) Also: *it is thought / reported / expected that*.

Positive sentence, negative tag; negative sentence, positive tag. Use the same auxiliary. - It's cold, isn't it? (Soğuk, değil mi?) - You don't eat meat, do you? (Et yemiyorsun, değil mi?) - She has finished, hasn't she? (Bitirdi, değil mi?) Special: *I'm late, aren't I?* / *Let's go, shall we?*

After *Could you tell me / Do you know / I wonder*, use statement word order (no *do/does/did*). - Where is the station? → Could you tell me where the station is? (İstasyonun nerede olduğunu söyler misiniz?) - Did he call? → Do you know if he called? (Arayıp aramadığını biliyor musunuz?)

Make requests and opinions less direct. - I was wondering if you could help me. (Bana yardım edip edemeyeceğinizi merak ediyordum.) - Would you mind closing the door? (Kapıyı kapatır mısınız?) - It seems a bit expensive. (Biraz pahalı gibi görünüyor.) Words like *a bit, slightly, perhaps* also soften.

With many phrasal verbs the object can go in the middle or at the end. - She brought up the problem. / She brought the problem up. (Sorunu gündeme getirdi.) - Put off the meeting. / Put the meeting off. (Toplantıyı ertele.) With a pronoun it must go in the middle: *put it off*, not *put off it*.

Some never split: the object always comes after the whole verb. - We will look into the complaint. (Şikayeti inceleyeceğiz.) - I ran into Ayşe at lunch. (Öğle yemeğinde Ayşe'ye rastladım.) - Who will deal with it? (Bununla kim ilgilenecek?)

These have two particles and never split. - She came up with a great idea. (Harika bir fikir buldu.) - I can't keep up with all these emails. (Bu e-postalara yetişemiyorum.) - We ran out of paper. (Kağıdımız bitti.)

An idiom's meaning is not the sum of its words, and you can't change them. - The exam was a piece of cake. (Sınav çocuk oyuncağıydı.) - not *a piece of the cake*, not *a slice of cake* Learn idioms as whole chunks, like single words.

Some idioms match Turkish, many don't. - break the ice = buzları kırmak (same image) - on the fence = kararsız kalmak (iki arada bir derede) - once in a blue moon = kırk yılda bir - it costs an arm and a leg = dudak uçuklatan fiyat Don't translate idioms word for word.

Casual speech uses small words to sound relaxed. - Anyway, how was your weekend? (Neyse...) - It was kind of boring. (Biraz / bir nevi) - I mean, it wasn't bad. (Yani...) Use them in conversation, not in formal writing.

Introduce advantages and disadvantages clearly. - One advantage of public transport is that it reduces traffic. (Toplu taşımanın bir avantajı trafiği azaltmasıdır.) - On the other hand, it can be crowded. (Öte yandan kalabalık olabilir.) - The main drawback is the cost. (Ana dezavantajı maliyettir.)

Use linkers to add, contrast and conclude. - Add: Moreover / In addition, ... (Ayrıca) - Contrast: However, ... / Although it is cheap, ... (Ancak / -e rağmen) - Conclude: All in all / To sum up, ... (Sonuç olarak) *However* starts a new sentence; *although* joins two clauses.

Stay polite, even when you disagree. - I see your point, but ... (Ne demek istediğini anlıyorum ama...) - I couldn't agree more. (Kesinlikle katılıyorum.) - That's not entirely true. (Bu tamamen doğru değil.) Reuse softeners from earlier: *I'm afraid, perhaps, slightly*.