C1 İngilizce kursu: İleri

After a negative or restrictive adverb at the start of a sentence, the auxiliary comes before the subject, like a question (soru düzeni).

• Never have I seen such a view. (Hayatımda böyle bir manzara görmedim.)
• Rarely do we get a chance like this. (Böyle bir fırsatı nadiren yakalarız.)
• Not until she called did I realise. (O arayana kadar fark etmedim.)
• Under no circumstances should you open this door. (Hiçbir koşulda bu kapıyı açmamalısın.)

No auxiliary in the normal sentence? Add do / does / did.

• Not only did he apologise, but he also paid for the damage. (Sadece özür dilemekle kalmadı, zararı da ödedi.)
• Hardly had we sat down when the phone rang. (Daha oturmuştuk ki telefon çaldı.)
• No sooner had I left than it started to rain. (Çıkar çıkmaz yağmur başladı.)

Note the pairs: hardly / scarcely ... when, no sooner ... than. Use the past perfect.

Split a sentence to focus on one part (vurgulama).

• What I need is a long holiday. (İhtiyacım olan şey uzun bir tatil.)
• What she did was call the police. (Yaptığı şey polisi aramaktı.)
• It was Ahmet that / who broke the window. (Camı kıran Ahmet'ti.)
• It wasn't until midnight that they arrived. (Ancak gece yarısı geldiler.)
• All I want is some peace and quiet. (Tek istediğim biraz huzur.)

Strong claims can sound arrogant or unscientific. Hedging (temkinli ifade) shows you are careful.

• Social media causes loneliness. (too strong)
• Social media may contribute to* loneliness.* (careful)

Useful verbs: appear to, seem to, tend to, suggest, indicate.
- Young people tend to* spend more online.* (Gençler internette daha fazla zaman geçirme eğilimindedir.)

• It would appear that the plan has failed. (Görünüşe göre plan başarısız oldu.)
• It is widely believed that ... (Yaygın olarak inanılır ki ...)
• There is some evidence to suggest that ... (... olduğunu gösteren bazı kanıtlar var.)
• It could be argued that ... (... olduğu öne sürülebilir.)

These avoid I think and keep an academic register (akademik üslup).

• arguably (tartışmaya açık olsa da) the best film of the year
• to some extent / to a certain degree (bir dereceye kadar)
• presumably (muhtemelen, tahminen)
• somewhat (biraz, bir ölçüde)
• in most cases / the majority of (çoğu durumda / çoğunluğu)

The results are somewhat* surprising.* I agree to some extent.

In formal English you can drop if and invert (if olmadan, devrik yapı).

• Should you need help, call me. = If you need help... (Yardıma ihtiyacınız olursa beni arayın.)
• Were I you, I would accept. = If I were you... (Yerinde olsam kabul ederdim.)
• Had we known, we would have come. = If we had known... (Bilseydik gelirdik.)

Negative: Had I not seen it... (Görmeseydim...)

But for / Were it not for / If it hadn't been for + noun = without (... olmasaydı).

• But for your help, I would have failed. (Yardımın olmasaydı başarısız olurdum.)
• Were it not for the rain, we could go out. (Yağmur olmasa dışarı çıkabilirdik.)
• Had it not been for the doctor, he would have died. (Doktor olmasaydı ölürdü.)

- provided (that) / providing / as long as = only if (... şartıyla)
You can borrow it provided that you return it.
- otherwise = if not (aksi takdirde): Hurry, otherwise we'll miss the train.
- supposing / suppose = imagine if (diyelim ki)
- Implied conditionals have no if: I would have called, but my phone died.* With a bit more time, we could finish.* *Without your support...*

Some words simply go together (eşdizimler). Turkish logic does not always help.

• heavily dependent on (büyük ölçüde bağımlı), not strongly dependent
• bitterly disappointed (derin hayal kırıklığına uğramış)
• highly unlikely (son derece düşük ihtimalli)
• deeply concerned (derinden endişeli)
• fully aware (tamamen farkında)
• draw a conclusion (sonuç çıkarmak), not make a conclusion

• pay attention (dikkat etmek), pose a threat (tehdit oluşturmak)
• raise awareness (farkındalık yaratmak), meet a deadline (teslim tarihine yetişmek)
• reach an agreement (anlaşmaya varmak), take into account (hesaba katmak)
• bear in mind (aklında tutmak)

We failed to meet the deadline. Please bear in mind that...

Prefixes (önekler) change meaning:
- mis- wrongly: misunderstand, over- too much: overestimate, under- too little: underestimate
- ir- / il- / im- / in- not: irrelevant, illegal, impractical, inaccurate

Suffixes (sonekler) change word class:
- -ness / -ity / -ment nouns: awareness, reliability, assessment
- -ise / -en verbs: prioritise, broaden
- -able / -ive / -ous adjectives: reliable, effective, ambiguous

• Rhetorical questions (cevap beklemeyen sorular): Can we really afford to wait?
• The rule of three (üçlü kural): It is cheaper, faster and safer.
• Strong signposting: First and foremost... / Above all... / Crucially... (Her şeyden önce / En önemlisi)
• Inclusive language: We all know... / Surely we can agree... (Hepimiz biliyoruz ki...)

Admit a point before you challenge it (kabul edip karşı çıkmak).

• Admittedly, the plan is expensive. However, ... (Kabul etmek gerekir ki...)
• Granted, it will take time, but ... (Doğru, zaman alacak ama...)
• That said, ... / Having said that, ... (Bununla birlikte)
• While it is true that ..., ... (... doğru olsa da)
• Even so, ... (Öyle bile olsa)

• Opponents argue that ... (Karşı çıkanlar ... olduğunu savunuyor)
• This argument fails to take into account ... (Bu argüman ... hesaba katmıyor)
• On the contrary, ... (Aksine)
• I would go so far as to say ... (... diyecek kadar ileri giderim)
• The evidence clearly shows ... (Kanıtlar açıkça gösteriyor)

A participle clause replaces a full clause when the subject is the same (özne aynıysa yan cümle kısalır).

• Having finished the report, she went home. = After she had finished... (Raporu bitirdikten sonra eve gitti.)
• Having been told the news, he called his mother. (Haber kendisine söylendikten sonra annesini aradı.)
• Being watched by everyone, I felt nervous. (Herkes tarafından izlendiğim için gergindim.)

Having + V3 shows the action happened first (önce olan eylem).

Drop who/which/that + be to make a relative clause shorter (ilgi cümlesini kısaltma).

• The man (who is) standing by the door is my uncle. (Kapının yanında duran adam)
• The houses (which were) built in 1900 are protected. (1900'de inşa edilen evler)
• Anyone wishing to leave early must sign out. (Erken çıkmak isteyen herkes)

-ing = active (etken), -ed / V3 = passive (edilgen).

• Reason (sebep): Not knowing what to say, I stayed silent. (Ne diyeceğimi bilmediğim için sustum.)
• Reason, passive: Exhausted by the journey, we went straight to bed. (Yolculuktan bitkin düştüğümüz için)
• Time (zaman): Walking home, I saw an old friend. (Eve yürürken)
• With a conjunction: After / Before / While + -ing: Before leaving, check the windows.

Watch the subject: Walking home, the rain started is wrong, because the rain was not walking (sarkık ortaç hatası).

After verbs and adjectives of demand or importance, use the base form of the verb for every person (tüm kişilerde yalın fiil).

• It is essential that he be on time. (Onun zamanında orada olması şart.)
• I suggest that she go to a doctor. (Doktora gitmesini öneririm.)
• They insisted that the manager apologise. (Müdürün özür dilemesinde ısrar ettiler.)

No -s, no was/is: that he be, that she go. Negative: that he not* be late*.

• if need be = if necessary (gerekirse): I will work late, if need be.
• be that as it may = even so (her ne kadar öyle olsa da)
• suffice it to say = I will only say (şu kadarını söyleyeyim)
• so be it = then accept it (öyle olsun)
• were it not for = if it were not for (... olmasaydı): Were it not for your help, we would have failed.

Formal register (resmi üslup) is indirect and impersonal:

• I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with the service. (Hizmetten duyduğum memnuniyetsizliği bildirmek için yazıyorum.)
• I would appreciate it if you could refund the cost. (... iade ederseniz memnun olurum.)
• I must insist that the matter be resolved promptly. (Konunun hızla çözülmesinde ısrar etmeliyim.)
• Should you require further information, please contact me. (Daha fazla bilgiye ihtiyaç duyarsanız)

Start positive, be specific, then suggest (önce olumlu, sonra somut, sonra öneri).

• I really appreciate your effort on this, but the figures need checking. (Emeğini takdir ediyorum ama rakamların kontrol edilmesi gerekiyor.)
• One thing that might help is sending updates earlier. (Faydalı olabilecek bir şey...)
• I've noticed that the reports have been late recently. (... dikkatimi çekti.)

Criticise the work, not the person (kişiyi değil, işi eleştir).

Soften with modal verbs, hedges and questions (yumuşatıcılar):

• I see where you're coming from, but ... (Ne demek istediğini anlıyorum ama...)
• I'm not sure I entirely agree. (Tamamen katıldığımdan emin değilim.)
• Wouldn't it be better to wait? (Beklemek daha iyi olmaz mı?)
• With respect, I think we may be overlooking the cost.
• slightly, a bit, perhaps, might make a statement less direct.

• Is there any flexibility on the deadline? (Son tarih konusunda esneklik var mı?)
• Realistically, we're looking at the end of the month. (Gerçekçi olmak gerekirse...)
• If we push it back by a week, we can guarantee quality. (Bir hafta ertelersek...)
• That's a tight deadline. (Sıkışık bir son tarih.)
• Could we agree on a compromise? Let's touch base on Friday. (Cuma günü haberleşelim.)

Academic English turns verbs and adjectives into nouns (fiilleri isimleştirme).

• The government implemented the policy.* becomes The implementation of the policy...* (politikanın uygulanması)
• Emissions were reduced. becomes *A reduction in emissions...* (emisyonlarda azalma)
• Prices increased sharply.* becomes A sharp increase in prices...*

Useful suffixes: -tion, -ment, -ance, -ity, -ness (implement, implementation; develop, development; significant, significance).

Nominalised nouns take fixed prepositions (sabit edatlar):

• a rise / fall / reduction / increase in something (bir şeyde artış/azalma)
• the effect / impact / influence on something (bir şey üzerindeki etki)
• the cause of, the solution to, the relationship between A and B
• There has been a significant reduction in air pollution.

Scientists avoid claiming too much (aşırı iddiadan kaçınma, hedging):

• The results suggest that ... (Sonuçlar ... olduğunu gösteriyor.)
• The data indicate a link between sleep and memory. (... arasında bir bağlantıya işaret ediyor.)
• It appears that / It is likely that ... (Görünüşe göre / Muhtemelen)
• Further research is needed. (Daha fazla araştırma gerekiyor.)
• correlation is not causation: a link does not prove a cause (ilişki nedensellik değildir).

Discourse markers organise what you say and show your attitude (söylemi düzenleyen ifadeler).

• mind you = but remember (gerçi, ama şunu da söyleyeyim): It's expensive. Mind you, it's good quality.
• as it happens = by chance, actually (tesadüfen, aslında): As it happens, I know her.
• come to think of it = now that I think about it (şimdi düşünüyorum da)
• anyway = back to the main point (neyse)
• having said that = despite what I just said (bunu söyledikten sonra, yine de)

Natural speakers buy time with fillers (dolgu ifadeler):

• well, you know, I mean, sort of, kind of
• Let me think. / How can I put it? (Nasıl desem?)
• What I'm trying to say is ... (Demeye çalıştığım şu ki...)

Use them lightly: too many sound unsure (fazlası kararsız gösterir).

• Taking the turn: Can I just jump in here? (Burada araya girebilir miyim?) / Sorry to interrupt, but ...
• Holding the turn: Hang on, let me finish. (Dur, bitireyim.)
• Giving the turn: What do you reckon? (Sen ne dersin?) / Over to you.
• Returning to a point: Going back to what you said about ... (... hakkında söylediğine dönersek)
• Showing you listen: Really? No way! That makes sense.